TITUS Didactica: Elements of Indo-European Phonology

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TITUS	DIDACTICA

Elements of Indo-European Phonology

1. The phonemic inventory (traditional interpretation)

1.1. Non-sonorants (obstruents and laryngeals):

Stops	Tenues (voiceless-nonaspirated)	Tenues aspiratae (voiceless-aspirated)	Mediae (voiced-nonaspirated)	Mediae aspiratae (voiced-aspirated)
Labials	p	p^h	b	b^h
Dentals	t	t^h	d	d^h
Palatals	ḱ	ḱ^h	ǵ	ǵ^h
Velars	k	k^h	g	g^h
Labiovelars	k^w	k^wh	g^w	g^wh
Sibilants	voiceless	voiceless-aspirated	voiced
Dental	s	/	/
Laryngeals	h₁	h₂	h₃

1.2. Sonorants (vowels, nasals and liquids):

Nasals and Liquids r l m n

Vowels front central back
short long short long short long
High i u
Non-high e ē a ā o ō

1.3. The ablaut system:

Primary (e-) grades Secondary (o-) grades (a-) grades
Long grades ē ō (ā)
Normal (full) grades e o (a)
Zero (reduced) grade Ø

1.4. PIE phonemes arranged by distinctive features

p^h

b^h

t^h

d^h

ḱ

ḱ^h

ǵ^h

k^h

g^h

k^w

k^wh

g^w

g^wh

h₁

h₂

h₃

consonant

obstruent

syllabic

–

nasal

–

low

–

high

–

back

–

round

–

coronal

–

lateral

–

continuant

–

fricative

–

aspirated

–

voiced

–

tense

–

r l m n i u e ē o ō a ā
consonant + + + + – – – – – – – –
obstruent – – – – – – – – – – – –
syllabic – – – – – – + + + + + +
nasal – – + + – – – – – – – –
low – – – – – – – – – – – –
high – – – – + + – – – – – –
back – – – – – + – – + + + +
round – – + – – + – – + + – –
anterior + + + + – – – – – – – –
coronal + + – + – – – – – – – –
lateral – + – – – – – – – – – –
continuant + + – – + + + + + + + +
fricative + + – – – – – – – – – –
aspirated – – – – – – – – – – – –
voiced + + + + + + + + + + + +
tense – – – – – – – + – + – +

1.5. PIE phonemes grouped under cover symbols:

p p^h b b^h t t^h d d^h ḱ ḱ^h ǵ ǵ^h k k^h g g^h k^w k^wh g^w g^wh s h₁ h₂ h₃
C + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Z + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + – + – +
P + – – – + – – – + – – – + – – – + – – – – + – –
P^h – + – – – + – – – + – – – + – – – + – – – – – –
B – – + – – – + – – – + – – – + – – – + – – – – +
B^h – – – + – – – + – – – + – – – + – – – + – – – –
Ψ + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + +
Γ – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – – +
Δ + – + – + – + – + – + – + – + – + – + – + + – –
Φ – + – + – + – + – + – + – + – + – + – + – – + –
S – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – + – + –
H – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – + + +
Π + + + + – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
T – – – – + + + + – – – – – – – – – – – – + – – –
Ξ – – – – – – – – + + + + + + + + + + + + – – – –
Ḱ – – – – – – – – + + + + – – – – – – – – – – – –
X – – – – – – – – – – – – + + + + – – – – – – – –
Q – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – + + + + – – – –
K – – – – – – – – + – – – + – – – + – – – – – – –
K^h – – – – – – – – – + – – – + – – – + – – – – – –
G – – – – – – – – – – + – – – + – – – + – – – – –
G^h – – – – – – – – – – – + – – – + – – – + – – – –

r l m n i u e ē o ō a ā
C + + + + – – – – – – – –
V + + + + + + + + + + + +
U – – – – + + + + + + + +
Ω – – – – – – + + + + + +
E – – – – – – + + – – – –
O – – – – – – – – + + – –
A – – – – – – – – – – + +
F – – – – + + + – + – + –
W – – – – – – – + – + – +
M – – + – – + – – – – – –
R + + + + + + – – – – – –
L + + – – – – – – – – – –
N – – + + – – – – – – – –
I – – – – + + – – – – – –
J – – – – + – + + – – – –
Y – – – – – + – – + + – –

2. Phonemes and their phonetic realization (overview)

2.1. Non-sonorants (obstruents and laryngeals)

Stops (voiceless-nonaspirated)	Tenues (voiceless-aspirated)	Tenues aspiratae	Mediae (voiced-nonaspirated)	Mediae aspiratae (voiced-aspirated )
Labials	p	p^h	b	b^h
Labials	[p, b ¹]	[p^h, p ²]	[b, p ³]	[b^h, p²]
Dentals	t	t^h	d	d^h
	[t, d¹, d^h ⁴, t^h ⁵]	[t^h, t²]	[d, d^h⁵, t³]	[d^h, t²]
	[t^s ⁶, d^z^6+1,3]	[t^s^h6, t^s⁶⁺²]	[d^z⁶, t^s⁶⁺³]	[d^z^h6, t^s⁶⁺²]
	[t^ś ⁷, d^ź^7+1,3]	[t^ś^h7, t^ś⁷⁺²]	[d^ź⁷, t^ś⁷⁺³]	[d^ź^h7, t^ś⁷⁺²]
Palatals	ḱ	ḱ^h	ǵ	ǵ^h
Palatals	[ḱ, ǵ¹, ǵ^h⁴, ḱ^h⁵]	[ḱ^h, ḱ²]	[ǵ, ǵ^h⁵, ḱ³]	[ǵ^h, ǵ²]
Velars	k	k^h	g	g^h
Velars	[k, g¹, g^h⁴, k^h⁵]	[k^h, k²]	[g, g^h⁵, k³]	[g^h, g²]
Labiovelars	k^w	k^wh	g^w	g^wh
Labiovelars	[k^w, g^w¹, g^wh⁴, k^wh⁵]	[k^wh, k^w²]	[g^w, g^wh⁵, k^w³]	[g^wh, g^w²]
Sibilants	voiceless	voiceless aspirated	voiced	voiced aspirated
Dental	s
	[s, z¹, s^h5, z^h⁴]
	[š ⁸, ž⁷⁺¹, ž^h⁷⁺⁴]
Laryngeals	h₁	h₂	h₃
	[˒; ˒ə_e ⁹, ə_e˒⁹]	[h; hə_a⁹, ə_ah⁹]	[˓; ˓ə_o⁹, ə_o˓⁹]
	[Ø ¹⁰]

Notes:: 1. Voiced realization by regressive assimilation to following voiced obstruent. [back / zurück]; 2. Non-aspirated realization by neutralization in word final position (also before s). [back / zurück]; 3. Voiceless realization by regressive assimilation to following voiceless obstruent. [back / zurück]; 4. Aspirated realization according to Bartholomae's law. [back / zurück]; 5. Aspirated realization by regressive assimilation to following h₂. [back / zurück]; 6. By assibilation in position before dental stops. [back / zurück]; 7. By dissimilation in position before velar (/ palatal / labiovelar) stop ("thorn")? [back / zurück]; 8. Under unclear conditions: "ruki". [back / zurück]; 9. Shewa-anaptyxis with colouring. [back / zurück]; 10. In word final position (facultative realization according to Kuiper's law). [back / zurück]

2.2. Sonorants (vowels, nasals and liquids):

Nasals and Liquids	r	l	m	n
	[r; r̥¹, r̥̄¹⁺²]	[l; l̥¹, l̥̄¹⁺³]	[m; m̥¹, m̥̄¹⁺⁴]	[n; n̥¹, n̥̄¹⁺⁵]

Vowels	front		central		back
Vowels	short	long	short	long	short	long
High	i				u
	[i; ī¹²]				[u; ū¹²]
	[i̯¹³]				[u̯¹³]
Non-high	e	ē	a	ā	o	ō
	[e, a ⁶, o ⁷]	[ē ⁸]	[a]	[ā]	[o]	[ō]
	[ē ⁹, ā ¹⁰, ō ¹¹]		[ā ¹²]		[ō¹²]

Notes:: 1. When syllabic. [back / zurück]; 2. In position before tautosyllabic laryngeal. [back / zurück]; 3. In position before tautosyllabic laryngeal. [back / zurück]; 4. In position before tautosyllabic laryngeal. [back / zurück]; 5. In position before tautosyllabic laryngeal. [back / zurück]; 6. By assimilation to adjacent h₂ (a-"colouring"). [back / zurück]; 7. By assimilation to adjacent h₃ (o-"colouring"). [back / zurück]; 8. No assimilation to adjacent laryngeals ("colouring") according to Eichner's law. [back / zurück]; 9. Substitutional lengthening in position before tauto-syllabic h₁. [back / zurück]; 10. "a-Colouring" plus substitutional lengthening in position before tauto-syllabic h₂. [back / zurück]; 11. "o-Colouring" plus substitutional lengthening in position before tauto-syllabic h₃. [back / zurück]; 12. Substitutional lengthening in position before tauto-syllabic laryngeals. [back / zurück]; 13. Non-syllabic realization in position before or after syllabic segment. [back / zurück]

3. Sample: Obstruent p

PIE

Attested I.E. languages

phonolog. input

phonetic output

condition / meaning

Ved.

Avest.

Greek

Arm.

Latin

OIr.

Goth.

OHG

OCS

Lith.

Hitt.

Toch.A

Toch.B

#_V

pˈotis

pótis

‘lord, master, husband’ (nom.sg.m.)

pátiḥ

paitiš

πόσις

potis

-faþs

(-pod-)

-pats

pats

petso

ph₂tˈēr

pə_a(h)tḗr

‘father’ (nom.sg.m.)

πατήρ

hayr

pater

athir

(fadar)

fater

pācar

pācer

pə_a(h)tḗ

pitā́

(p(i))tā

pˈōds

pο̄́ts

‘foot’ (nom./acc.sg.)

pā́t

πούς

(pēs)

(fotus)

fuoz

pˈodm

pódm̥

pā́dam

pādəm

πόδα

otn

(pedem)

fotu

fuoz

patan

(pe)

(pai)

pˈelh₁u-

pél՚u-

‘much’ (masc./ntr. stem)

filu

plh₁ˈu-

pl̥՚ú-

purú-

pouru-

(πολύ-)

pˈeḱus

péḱus

‘livestock’ (nom.sg.f.)

páśuḥ

pasuš

(pecus)

faihu

fihu

pekùs

pˈontēh₂s

póntē(h)s

‘way, path’ (nom./gen.sg.)

pánt^hāḥ

pantå̄

(πόντος)

hown

(pons)

pǫtĭ

pnth₂ˈes

pn̥t^hh₂as

pat^háḥ

paϑō

#_V*Q

pˈenk^we

pénk^we

‘five’ (indecl.)

páñca

panca

πέντε

hing

quīnque

cóic

fimf

(pętĭ)

(penkì)

päñ

piś

pˈek^weti

pék^weti

‘cooks’ (3.sg.prs.)

pácati

pacaiti

coquit

pečetŭ

(kẽpa)

(pakät)

(pakṣäṃ)

-pˈok^wos

-pók^wos

‘-cook’ (nom.sg.m.)

-κόπος

#s_V*Ξ

Κ*π

u̯

(s)pˈeḱieti

(s)péḱi̯eti

‘looks’ (3.sg.prs.)

páśyati

spasiieiti

σκέπτε(ται)

specit

(spehōt)

#_C

prˈo

pró

‘for(-)’ (prep./prev.)

prá

frā

πρό

pro-

ro-

fra-

fir-

pro-

pra-

plˈeueti

pléu̯eti

‘floats’ (3.sg.prs.)

(plávate)

(frauua-)

πλέει

(plovet)

(flew-)

plovetŭ

V́_V

v,w

ˈuperos

úperos

‘upper’ (nom.sg.m.)

úparaḥ

uparō

ὕπερος

(superus)

(ufaro)

nˈepōts

népōts

‘nephew’ (nom./acc.sg.)

nápāt

napå̄

nepōs

nia

neuo

(nepuotis)

nˈepotm

népotm̥

nápātam

napātəm

(νέποδ-)

(nepōtem)

(nepuotį)

V_V́

v,w

upˈeri

upéri

‘over’ (adv.)

upári

upairi

(ὑπέρ)

ver

(super)

(for-)

ubir

h₁ˈepi

՚épi

‘above, on’ (adv.)

ápi

aipi

ἔπι

V_PV́

v,w

septˈm

septḿ̥

‘seven’ (indecl.)

saptá

hapta

ἑπτά

ewtՙn

septem

(secht)

(sibun)

sedmĭ

(septynì)

ṣpät

ṣukt

V_nV́

v,w

u̯

suˈepnos

su̯épnos

‘sleep’ (nom.sg.)

svápnaḥ

x^vafnō

somnus

(svefn)

(swefn)

späṃ

spane

suˈopnos

su̯ópnos

kՙown

(suan)

sãpnas

sˈupnos

súpnos

ὕπνος

sŭnŭ

V_B

-pdo-

-bdo-

‘-foot-’ (in comp.)

(upá-)bda-

(fra-)bda-

(ἐπί-)βδ(α)-

piph₃ˈenti

pibՙónti

‘drink’ (3.pl.prs.)

píbanti

bibunt

ibat

h₂eph₃ōn

habՙōn

‘watery’ (nom.sg.m.)

aub

septmˈih₂

sebdmíh

‘seven’ (nom.sg.f.)

sedmĭ

4. Rules of phonetic realization

4.1. Neutralizations and assimilations among obstruents

4.1.1. Regressive voice assimilation:

Notation with cover symbols:

Ξ → Γ / _ Γ

Examples:

PIE Attested I.E. languages
phonolog. input phonetic output meaning / grammar Ved. Avest. Greek Arm. Latin OIr. Goth. OHG OCS Lith. Hitt. Toch.A Toch.B
nisdˈos nizdós ‘nest’ (nom.sg.m.) nist nīdus net nest
niždós nīḍáḥ, nīḷáḥ
h₂ˈosdos hózdos ‘branch’ (nom.sg.m.) ὄζος asts ast (ḫašduer)
sˈi-sd-eti sízdeti ‘sit’ (3.pl.prs.) ἵζει sīdit
síždeti > sḯdeti sī́dati (ni-)šhiδaiti
misd^hˈom mizd^hóm ‘salary, rent’ (acc.sg.mn. / nom.sg.f.) μισϑόν
mižd^hóm mīḍ^hám mı̄̆ždəm
misd^hˈeh₂ mizd^háh (mizdo) (miata) mĭzdá
mižd^háh
mns-d^hēh₁-s mn̥zd^hē(՚)s ‘reasoner’ (nom.sg.m.) medhā́ḥ mazdå̄
-pdo- -bdo- ‘-foot-’ (in comp.) upá-bda- fra-bda- ἐπί-βδα-
pˈiph₃enti píbՙonti ‘drink’ (3.pl.prs.) píbanti bibunt ibat
h₂eph₃ōn habՙōn ‘watery’ (nom.sg.m.) aub
septmˈih₂ sebdmíh ‘seven’ (nom.sg.f.) sedmĭ

4.1.2. Regressive devoicing:

4.1.2.1. General rule:

Notation with cover symbols:

Γ → Ξ / _ Ξ

4.1.2.2. Problem of relative chronology: Lachmann's law (valid for Latin):

Notation with cover symbols:

V → V̄ / _ PP

Examples:

Exceptions:
PIE			cp.	Proto-Latin			Latin
phonolog. input	phonetic output	meaning / grammar		regular development	morpholog. reanalysis	Lachmann's lengthening	Old Latin	Classic
h₃reǵ-tˈos	ՙreḱtós	‘directed, right’	(Greek ὀρεκτός, YAv. (raštəm), Goth. (raiht-)	*rectos	*reg-tos	*[re·gtos]	*rēctos	rēctus
teg-tˈos	tektós	‘thatched’	Greek *στεκτός	*tektos	*teg-tos	*[te·gtos]	*tēctos	tēctus
h₂eǵ-tˈos	haḱtós	‘driven’	Greek ἀκτός, OIr. acht	*aktos	*ag-tos	*[a·gtos]	*āctos	āctus
h₂ˈeg-tōr	háktōr	‘driver’	Greek ἄκτωρ	*aktōr	*ag-tōr	*[a·gtōr]	*āctōr
iug-tˈos	i̯uktós	‘joined’	OInd. yuktáḥ, Av. yuxta-, OEngl. iuht	*iuktos	*iug-tos	*[i̯u·gtos] > [i̯u·ngtos]	*iūnctos	iūnctus
uid-tˈos	u̯it^stós	‘known’	Greek (ἄ-)Ϝιστος, OInd. vittáḥ, OAv. vistō, OSax. wis, OHG (gi-)wis	*u̯ittsos	*u̯id-tsos	*[u̯i·dtsos]	*u̯īssos	uīsus
h₁ed-tˈos	՚et^stós	‘eaten’	OIr. es	*ettsos	*ed-tsos	*[e·dtsos]	*ēssos	ēsus
-sˈed-tis	-sét^stis	‘sitting’	OInd. (ní-)ṣattiḥ, YAv. (ni-)šasti-	*-settsis			*-sessis	-sessiō
-sed-tˈos	-set^stós	‘sitten’	OInd. -sattáḥ	*-settsos			*-sessos	-sessus
sk^hid-tós	sk^hit^stós	‘split’	Greek σχιστός, YAv. (a-)sistō	*skittsos			*scissos	scissus

4.1.2.3.
Unification of rules:

4.1.3. Deaspiration in word final position (also before word final s):

Notation with cover symbols:

Φ → Δ / _ # | _ s #

Examples:

PIE

Attested I.E. languages

phonolog. input

phonetic output

meaning / grammar

Ved.

Avest.

Greek

Arm.

Latin

OIr.

Goth.

OHG

OCS

Lith.

Hitt.

Toch.A

Toch.B

d^hrˈiG^h-s

d^hríks

‘hair’ (nom.sg.f.)

ϑρίξ

d^hriG^h-ˈes

d^hriG^hés

(gen.sg.f.)

τριχός

4.1.4. Progressive aspiration (Bartholomae's law; facultative rule in PIE?):

Notation with cover symbols:

Δ → Φ / Φ _ →→ Φ → B^h / B^h _

Examples:

PIE

Attested I.E. languages

phonolog. input

phonetic output

meaning / grammar

Ved.

Avest.

Greek

Arm.

Latin

OIr. / Cymr.

Goth. / OSax.

OHG

OCS

Lith.

Hitt.

Toch.A

Toch.B

b^hud^h-tˈos

b^hut^stós

‘noticed, become aware’ (PPP)

(ἄ-)πυστος

b^hud^zd^hós

budd^háḥ

uid^h-tós

u̯it^stós

‘divided’ (PPP)

(dī-)vīsus

u̯id^zd^hós

vidd^háḥ

iud^h-tˈos

i̯ut^stós

‘instigated (to fight)’ (PPP)

iussus

i̯ud^zd^hós

yudd^háḥ

lub^h-tˈeh₂

luptáh

‘desired, beloved’ (PPP nom.sg.f.)

λυπτά

lubd^háh

lubd^hā́

uéǵ^h-tōr

u̯éḱtōr

‘carrier’ (nom.sg.m.)

vectōr

u̯éǵd^hōr

voḍ^hā́, voḷ^hā́

ueǵ^h-tˈos

u̯eḱtós

‘carried, transported’ (PPP)

vašta-

vectus

fecht

u̯eǵd^hós

uǵ^h-tˈos

uḱtós

uǵd^hós

ūḍ^háḥ, ūḷ^háḥ

4.1.5. Regressive aspiration by assimilation to following h₂ (facultative rule in PIE?):

Notation with cover symbols:

Δ → Φ /_ h₂

Examples:

Problematic cases (implying loss of laryngeal):
PIE			Attested I.E. languages
phonolog. input	phonetic output	meaning / grammar	Ved.	Avest.	Greek	Arm.	Latin	OIr. / Cymr.	Goth. / OSax.	OHG	OCS	Lith.	Hitt.	Toch.A	Toch.B
sth₂-tˈos	st^hhə_atós	‘having stood’ (PPP)	st^hitáḥ				status	-ssad				stãtas
sth₂-tˈos	stə_a(h)tós	‘having stood’ (PPP)			στατός		status	-ssad				stãtas
sth₂-tˈim	st^hhə_atím	‘standing’ (acc.sg.f.)	st^hítiṃ				statim		(staþ)	stat
sth₂-tˈim	stə_a(h)tím	‘standing’ (acc.sg.f.)			στάσιν		statim		(staþ)	stat
pro-sth₂-os	prost^hhos	‘standing forward’ (nom.sg.m.)	prast^haḥ					ross			prostŭ
mˈeǵh₂	meǵ^hhə_a	‘big’ (nom.sg.n.)	máhi
	meǵə_a(h)				μέγα	mec
	meǵ												mek
mˈeǵh₂-istos	méǵ^hhištos	‘biggest’ (nom.sg.m.)	máhiṣṭ^haḥ	mazištō
mˈeǵh₂-istos	méǵ(h)istos	‘biggest’ (nom.sg.m.)		mazištō	μέγιστος
plth₂ˈus	pl̥t^hhuš	‘broad’ (nom.sg.m.)	pṛt^húḥ	pərəϑu-				leth				(platùs)
plth₂ˈus	pl̥t(h)us	‘broad’ (nom.sg.m.)			πλατύς			leth				(platùs)
plth₂uˈih₂	pl̥t^hhə_au̯íh	‘earth’ (nom.sg.f.)	pṛt^hivī́	pərəϑβī-				Cymr. Llydaw
	pl̥tə_a(h)u̯íh				Πλαταια-			Cymr. Llydaw
	pl̥t(h)u̯íh
rˈot-h₂-os	rót^hhos	‘cart’ (nom.sg.m.)	rát^haḥ	raϑō				roth		rad		rãtas
rˈot-h₂-os	rót(h)os	‘cart’ (nom.sg.m.)						roth		rad		rãtas
rot-eh₂	rotah	‘wheel’ (nom.sg.f.)					rota
d^hugh₂tˈēr	d^hug^hhə_atḗr	‘daughter’ (nom.sg.f.)	duhitā́										(kbatra) Lyc.	ckācar	tkācer
	d^hugə_a(h)tḗr				ϑυγάτηρ
	d^hugd^hḗr			dugədā
	d^huktḗr					dowstr			dauhtar	tochter	dŭštĭ	duktė̃

4.1.6. Assibilation of dental stops before dental stops:

Notation with cover symbols:

T → T^S / _ T

Examples:

Problematic cases (implying loss of laryngeals):
PIE			Attested I.E. languages
phonolog. input	phonetic output	meaning / grammar	Ved.	Avest.	Greek	Arm.	Latin	OIr. / Cymr.	Goth. / OSax.	OHG	OCS	Lith.	Hitt.	Toch.A	Toch.B
urt-tˈos	u̯r̥t^stós	‘turned’ (PPP)	vṛttáḥ				vorsus	fres-				vir̃stas
b^hud^h-tˈos	b^hut^stós	‘noticed, become aware’ (PPP)			(ἄ-)πυστος
b^hud^h-tˈos	b^hud^zd^hós	‘noticed, become aware’ (PPP)	budd^háḥ
iud^h-tˈos	i̯ut^stós	‘instigated (to fight)’ (PPP)					iussus
iud^h-tˈos	i̯ud^zd^hós	‘instigated (to fight)’ (PPP)	yudd^háḥ
uid^h-tós	u̯it^stós	divided					(dī-)vīsus
uid^h-tós	u̯id^zd^hós	divided	vidd^háḥ
uid-tˈos	u̯it^stós	‘known’ (PPP)	vittáḥ	vistō	(ἄ-)Ϝιστος		uīsus		wis	(gi-)wis
h₁ˈēd-ti	՚ḗt^sti	‘eats’ (3.sg.prs.)	(átti)		(ἔδεται subj. > fut.)		*ēst	(ys)		(ist)	ěstŭ	ė́sti	ēšzi
h₁ed-d^h·i	՚edd^hí	‘eat!’ (2.sg.ipv.)	add^hí		*ἐσϑί > ἐσϑίω
h₁ed-tˈos	՚et^stós	‘eaten’ (PPP)					ēsus	es
-sˈed-tis	-sét^stis	‘sitting’ (nom.sg.f.)	(ní-)ṣattiḥ	(ni-)šasti-			-sessiō
-sed-tˈos	-set^stós	‘sitten’ (PPP)	-sattáḥ				-sessus
uoid-th₂e	u̯oi̯t^st^hha	‘you have known’ (2.sg.pf.)	vétt^ha	vōistā	(Ϝ)οῖσϑα				waist	uueist(u)	(věsi)
sḱ^hid-tós	sḱ^hit^stós	‘split’ (PPP)		(a-)sistō	σχιστός		scissus
d^he-d^hh₁-tˈoi	d^hed^h՚ətói̯	‘puts for himself’ (3.sg.prs.med.)			(τίϑεται)
	d^het^stói̯		d^hatté
	d^hed^zd^hói̯			dazdē
de-dh₃-tˈoi	dedՙətói̯	‘gives for himself’ (3.sg.prs.med.)			(διδοται)
de-dh₃-tˈoi	det^stói̯	‘gives for himself’ (3.sg.prs.med.)	datté	dastē

4.1.7. Dissimilation of dental stops before velar stops ("thorn" rule):

Notation with cover symbols:

T → Þ / _ Ξ

Examples:

PIE

Attested I.E. languages

phonolog. input

phonetic output

meaning / grammar

Ved.

Avest.

Greek

Arm.

Latin

OIr. / Cymr.

Goth. / OSax.

OHG

OCS

Lith.

Hitt.

Toch.A

Toch.B

h₂ˈrtḱos

hə́_art^śḱós

‘bear’

ursus

art

ḫartka-

hə́_arḱt^śós

ṛ́kṣaḥ

aršō

ἄρκτος

arǰ

tḱˈitis

t^śḱítis

‘settlement’ (nom.sg.f.)

ḱt^śítiš

kṣitíḥ

šiti-

ḱt^śítis

κτίσις

d^hǵ^huH-m

d^źǵ^húhm

‘fish’ (acc.sg.m.)

d^źǵ^húhm̥

ǵd^ź^húhm

ἰχϑὺν

ǵd^ź^húhm̥

jukn

žùvį́

d^hǵ^hˈom-i-os

d^źǵ^hómii̯os

‘earthly’ (nom.sg.m.)

ǵd^ź^hómii̯os

kṣám_iyaḥ

χϑόνιος

duine

d^hǵ^hem-iˈeh₂

d^źǵ^hemi̯áh

‘land’ (nom.sg.f.)

ǵd^ź^hemi̯ah

zemljá

žẽmė

d^hǵ^hm-ˈes

d^źǵ^hmés

‘earth’ (gen.sg.f.)

dagnaš

ǵd^ź^hmés

kṣmáḥ

zəmō

d^ź^hmés

jmáḥ

d^ź^hm̥mes

d^hǵ^hm-ˈei

d^źǵ^hmei̯

‘earth’ (dat.sg.f.)

ǵd^ź^hmei̯

(kṣmé)

zəmē

d^ź^hmei̯

jmé

d^ź^hm̥mei̯

(χαμαί)

d^hˈeǵ^hōm

d^héǵ^hōm

‘earth’ (nom.sg.f.)

dēgan

> d^hǵ^hˈōm

d^źǵ^hṓm

(zå̄)

ǵd^ź^hṓm

(kṣāḥ)

χϑών

d^h’eǵ^hom-m

d^héǵ^homm̥

‘earth’ (acc.sg.f.)

d^héǵ^hōm

> d^hǵ^hˈom-m

d^źǵ^homm̥

tkaṃ

keṃ

ǵd^ź^homm̥

χϑόνα

d^źǵ^hōm

ząm

ǵd^ź^hōm

kṣā́m

ˈn-d^hg^whi-tom

ń̥d^źg^whitóm

‘imperishable’ (neg. PPP, nom.sg.n.)

ń̥g^wd^ź^hitóm

ákṣitam

ἄϕϑιτον

d^hg^whˈi-tis

d^źg^whítis

‘peril’ (nom.sg.f.)

g^wd^ź^hítis

g^wd^ź^hítiš

kṣitíḥ

ϕϑίσις

d^hg^whineHti

d^źg^whinEHti

‘destroys’ (3.sg.prs.)

jināiti

g^wd^ź^hinEHti

kṣiṇāti

(ϕϑίνει)

4.1.8. "Ruki" rule (facultative rule in PIE?):
4.1.8.1. a) after i,u:

Notation with cover symbols:

s → š / I _

Examples:

PIE

Attested I.E. languages

phonolog. input

phonetic output

meaning / grammar

Ved.

Avest.

Greek

Arm.

Latin

OIr. / Cymr.

Goth. / OSax.

OHG

OCS

Lith.

Hitt.

Toch.A

Toch.B

duís

du̯ís

‘twice’

δίς

duis > bis

twis

zwir-

duu̯ís

du̯íš

dvíḥ

ϑβiš

duu̯íš

d_uvíḥ

trís

trís

‘thrice’

τρίς

ter

tríš

tríḥ

ϑriš

h₁ish_1/2rˈos

՚isə_e/a(՚/h)rós

‘vivid; holy’

ἱε/αρός

(IARI)

(isara)

՚išə_e/a(՚/h)rós

iṣiráḥ

toisu

toi̯su

‘in these’ (loc.pl.)

τοῖσι

toi̯šu

téṣu

*taēšu

těxŭ

h₂usih₁

husi՚

‘ears’ (nom.du.n.)

huši՚

ušī

uši

h₂ˈeusos

háusos

‘ear’ (nom.sg.n.)

(auris)

áu

(ausō)

(ōra)

(ausìs)

háušos

uxo

h₂ˈeusōs

háusōs

‘dawn’ (nom.sg.f.)

ἠώς

(aurōrā)

háušōs

(uṣ.ā́ḥ)

> h₂usˈōs

husṓs

hušṓs

(uṣā́ḥ)

(ušå̄)

h₂ˈeusom

háusom

‘gold’ (nom.sg.n.)

aurum

ausas > áuksas

(wäs)

(yasa)

háušom

h₁ˈeus-eti

՚éu̯seti

‘burns’ (3.sg.prs.)

εὕει

ūrit

՚éu̯šeti

oṣati

h₁ustˈos

՚ustós

‘burned’ (PPP, nom.sg.m.)

ustus

՚uštós

uṣṭáḥ

dus-h₁ˈeusom

dus՚éusom

‘hard to burn’ (acc.sg.m.)

duš՚éušom

duróṣam

dūraošəm

dus-menˈeses

dusmenéses

‘badly minded’ (nom.pl.m.)

δυσμενέα

dušmenéses

durmanasaḥ

dušmanaŋhō

(s)nusˈos

(s)nusós

‘daughter-in-law’ (nom.sg.f.)

νυός

now

nurus

(s)nušós

(s)nusˈeh₂

(s)nusáh

(s)nušáh

snuṣā́

snor

snur

snŭxá

4.1.8.2. b) after velars:

Notation with cover symbols:

s → š / Ξ _

Examples:

PIE

Attested I.E. languages

phonolog. input

phonetic output

meaning / grammar

Ved.

Avest.

Greek

Arm.

Latin

OIr. / Cymr.

Goth. / OSax.

OHG

OCS

Lith.

Hitt.

Toch.A

Toch.B

ksurˈos

ksurós

‘knife’ (nom.sg.m.)

ξυρός

kšurós

kṣuráḥ

uksˈōn

uksṓn

‘ox’ (nom.sg.m.)

ych

*aúhsa

ohso

okso

ukšṓn

ukṣā́

uxšā

uksˈenm

uksénm̥

‘ox’ (acc.sg.m.)

ukšénm̥

ukṣánam

uksˈonm

uksónm̥

ukšónm̥

ukṣā́nam

uxšānəm

-rˈēǵs

-rḗḱs

‘ruler’ (in comp., nom.sg.m.)

rēx

rī

-rḗḱš

-rā́ṭ

-uēǵ^h-s-t

-u̯ēḱst

‘carried’ (3.sg.aor.)

(vēxit)

(věs-)

-u̯ēḱšt

(á)-vāṭ

uˈeǵ^h-s-e-t(i)

u̯éḱset(i)

‘will carry’ (3.sg.aor.subj.)

u̯éḱšet(i)

u̯éǵž^het(i)

vákṣat(i)

(uz-)uuažat

h₂uogs-eie-ti

hu̯oksei̯eti

‘grows’ (3.sg.prs.caus.)

wahseiþ

hu̯okšei̯eti

vakṣaya(m)

vaxšaiiat(ō)

uˈōk^w-s

u̯ṓk^ws

‘voice’ (nom.sg.f.)

vōx

u̯ṓk^wš

vā́k

vāxš

Unification of rules a) and b):

Notation with cover symbols:

s → š / I | Ξ _

4.1.8.3. b) after r:

Notation with cover symbols:

s → š / r _

Examples:

PIE

Attested I.E. languages

phonolog. input

phonetic output

meaning / grammar

Ved.

Avest.

Greek

Arm.

Latin

OIr. / Cymr.

Goth. / OSax.

OHG

OCS

Lith.

Hitt.

Toch.A

Toch.B

h₂rsēn

hr̥sēn

‘male (bull)’ (nom.sg.m.)

ἄρσ/ρην

(orre-)

hr̥šēn

(ṛṣa-)

arša

tˈrsus

tŕ̥sus

‘dry’ (nom.sg.m.)

þaúrsus

(durri)

tŕ̥šus

tṛṣúḥ

taršu-

trstˈos

tr̥stós

‘thirsty’ (nom.sg.m.)

tart

(þaurstei)

(durst)

tr̥štós

tṛṣṭáḥ

tarštō

Hˈorsos

Hórsos

‘ass, buttock’ (nom.sg.m.)

ὄρρος

or̄

ars

arra-

Hóršos

prsth₂ˈom

pr̥st^h(h)óm

‘peak, ridge’ (acc.sg.m.n.)

prĭstŭ

pir̃stą

pr̥št^h(h)óm

pṛṣṭ^hám

parštəm

meh₂tˈr-s

mahtŕ̥s

‘mother’ (gen.sg.f.)

mahtŕ̥š

mātúr

*mātərəš

meh₂tr-ˈes

mahtrés

mātris

matere

móteres

(mātri)

meh₂tr-ˈos

mahtrós

μητρός

mawr

máthar

muoter

4.2. Rules of syllabification

4.2.1. Hierarchy:

Rank	Sound category	Conditions of syllabicity
I.	Non-high vowels	Always (wherever they appear)
II.	High vowels, nasals, liquids	When not adjacent to sound of category I and when not followed by syllabic sound of category II ("Schindler's rule");
		when, as second element of syllable, followed by sound of category I in word-final syllable ("Sievers'" and "Lindeman's" laws)
III.	Laryngeals	When not adjacent to sound of category I or syllabic sound of category II
IV.	"Shewa secundum"	Within remaining clusters of non-syllabic consonants (facultatively)

4.2.2. Schematic rule representation:
4.2.2.1. Non-high vowels ("syllabic" not regarded as an underlying feature)

4.2.2.2. Other sonorants ("sonorant" not regarded as an underlying feature): Schindler's rule ( Die Sprache 23 [1977], p. 56):

Notation with cover symbols ("colouring" not accountable for):

R → R̥ / (# | C) _ (C | #)

(rule operating iteratively from right to left, with high vowels, nasals and liquids regarded as being underlyingly non-syllabic)

4.2.2.2.1. Subrule I: Sievers' law (after Schindler, o.c., p. 57):

Alternative notation with cover symbols:

R → R̥ / WCⁿ₁ _ VCⁿ₀# | VRCⁿ₁ _ VCⁿ₀#

Same with notation of presumptive syllable boundaries (.):

R → R̥ / W.Cⁿ₁ _ VCⁿ₀# | VR.Cⁿ₁ _ VCⁿ₀#

N.B. Tautosyllabic obstruent clusters are no valid condition:

R → R / VPP. _ VCⁿ₀#

4.2.2.2.2. Lindeman's law:

Notation by cover symbols:

R → R̥ / #Cⁿ₁ _ VCⁿ₀#

Example:

Paradigm *{ḱuon-} "dog"
Case form	phonological input		phonetic output	Old Indic	Greek
Case form	phonological input		phonetic output	Old Indic	attested	expected
Nom.Sg.	/ḱuō(n)/	→	[ḱu̯ō(n)] / [ḱuu̯ō(n)]	ś_uvā	κύων / ^†πῶν
Acc.Sg.	/ḱuón-m/	→	[ḱu̯ónm̥]	śvā́nam	<κύνα>	^†πόνα
Gen.Sg.	/ḱun-és/	→	[ḱunés]	śunás	(κυνός)	^†κυνές
Nom.Pl.	/ḱuón-es/	→	[ḱu̯ónes]	śvā́nas	<κύνες>	^†πόνες
Acc.Pl.	/ḱun-ns/	→	[ḱunn̥s]	śunás	κύνας
Instr.Pl.	/ḱun-bʰís/	→	[ḱu̯n̥bʰís]	śvabhís
Loc.Pl.	/ḱun-sú/	→	[ḱu̯n̥sú]	*śvasú	<(κῡσί)>	^†πασύ

4.2.2.3. Laryngeals (N.B.: syllabicity of obstruents phonetically implausible)

/h_x/ → [h̥_x]

Notation with cover symbols ("colouring" not accountable for):

H → H̥ / (C | #) H _ (C | #)

4.2.2.3.1. Alternative solutions:
4.2.2.3.1.1. Shewa anaptyxis before laryngeals:

/h_x/ → [ə_xh_x]

Notation with cover symbols ("colouring" not accountable for):

Ø → ə / (C | #) _ H (C | #)

4.2.2.3.1.2. Shewa anaptyxis after laryngeals:

/h_x/ → [h_xə_x]

Notation with cover symbols ("colouring" not accountable for):

Ø → ə / (C | #) H _ (C | #)

4.2.2.3.1.3. Shewa substitution (N.B.: "double" effects not accountable for):

/h_x/ → [ə_x]

Notation with cover symbols ("colouring" not accountable for):

H → ∀ / (C | #) _ (C | #)

4.2.3. Other rules concerning laryngeals:
4.2.3.1. "Colouring":

Notation with cover symbols:

e → a / ( _ h₂ ) | ( h₂ _ )

e → o / ( _ h₃ ) | ( h₃ _ )

4.2.3.2. Loss of laryngeal in pausa position ("Kuiper's law", facultative; after colouring!):

Notation with cover symbols:

H → Ø / _ ##

4.2.3.3. "Compensatory lengthening":
4.2.3.3.1. a) coinciding with colouring:

e → ē / _ h₁C

e → ā / _ h₂C

e → o / _ h₃C

4.2.3.3.2. b) same, with laryngeals "absorbed":

eh₁ → ē / _ C

eh₂ → ā / _ C

eh₃ → o / _ C

N.B. This cannot be the general rule of PIE because *h₂ has been preserved as ḫ in this position in Anatolian; cp., e.g. Hitt. paḫš- < *peh₂-sḱ- vs. Lat. pāscō etc.

4.2.3.3.3. c) rule to be applied after colouring, including lengthening of i,u,r̥,l̥,m̥,n̥:

V → V̄ / _ HC

N.B. In the case of nasals and liquids, this rule can hardly represent the actual phonetic development if we consider the Greek development of -ενε- vs -νη- etc. (governed by accent? ablaut levelling?); rather a rule of shewa anaptyxis? Cp.

PIE		Greek		Latin	Slavic	Indo-Iranian		Toch.B
phonological input	phonetic output	Proto-Greek	Classic	Latin	Slavic	OInd.	Avest.
/ǵˈn̥h₁-ti-s/ ← {ǵˈenh₁-ti-s}?	[ǵə́_en՚ə_etis]	*génetis	γένεσις
/ǵˈn̥h₁-ti-s/ ← {ǵˈenh₁-ti-s}?	[ǵnə_e՚tis]			nāti-ō
/ǵn̥h₁-tˈo-s/	[ǵnə_e՚tós]	*gnātós	(κασί-)γνητος	nātus
/ǵn̥h₁-tˈo-s/	[ǵə_en՚tós]					jātáḥ	jātō
/ḱˈr̥h₂sˈn-h₂/ ← {ḱˈerh₂sn-h₂}?	[ḱə_ar̥̄hsn̥̄́h]					śīrṣā́
/ḱˈr̥h₂sˈn-h₂/ ← {ḱˈerh₂sn-h₂}?	[ḱə́_arhə_asnə_ah]	*kárahna	κάρηνα
/ḱr̥h₂sn̥-ˈes/	[ḱə_arhsnés]					śīrṣṇás
/ḱˈr̥h₂sn̥-tos/	[ḱrə́_ahsn̥tos]	*krā́hatos	κρᾱ́ατος
/ḱˈr̥h₂os/	[ḱə́_arhos]					śíraḥ	sarə̄
/-str̥h₃-toi/	[-stə_orՙə₃toi]	*-storotoi̯	ἐ-στόροται
/str̥h₃-tˈo-s/	[strə_oՙtós]	*strōtós	στρωτός	strātus
/str̥h₃-tˈo-s/	[stə_orՙtós]					(stīrṇáḥ)	starətas-
/pˈrh₃uos/	[pə₃rՙu̯os]				pĭ́rvŭ-jŭ	pū́rvaḥ	pouruuō	pärwe-ṣṣe
/pˈrh₃tos/	[prə́₃ՙtos]	*prṓtos	πρῶτος

4.2.3.3.4. d) same in word final position: three (facultative) effects:
4.2.3.3.4.1. lengthening:

V → V̄ / _ HC

4.2.3.3.4.2. loss of laryngeal ("Kuiper's law"):

Notation with cover symbols:

H → Ø / V _ #

4.2.3.3.4.3. after i,u: shewa anaptyxis before laryngeal:

Notation with cover symbols ("colouring" not accountable for):

Ø → ə / R _ H #

Examples:

phonological input		phonetic output		Attested I.E. languages
*/pˈih₁uerih₂/	→	[pī́u̯erī]	>	OInd. pī́varī
	→	[pī́u̯eri]	>	OInd. voc. *pī́vari
	→	[pī́u̯eri̯ə_ah]	>	Greek πίειρα
/pˈotnih₂/	→	[pótnī]	>	OInd. pátnī
	→	[pótni]	>	OInd. voc. pátni
	→	[pótn_ii̯ə_ah]	>	Greek πότνια
/plth₂uˈih₂/	→	[pl̥t^hhə_au̯ī́]	>	OInd. pr̥t^h(i)vī́
	→	[pĺ̥t^hhə_au̯i]	>	OInd. voc. pŕ̥t^h(i)vi
	→	[pl̥tə_ahu̯i̯ə_ah]	>	Greek *πλαταῖα
/h₃k^wih₁	→	[ՙə_ok^wī]	>	(Arm. ačՙ-kՙ, Slav. očī, Lith. akì)
	→	[ՙə_ok^wi]
		[ՙə_ok^wi̯ə_e՚]	>	Greek ὄσσε

4.2.3.4. Occlusives ("shewa secundum"). Cf. Peters, Laryngale, 98. N.B.: This "shewa" to be regarded as unrounded high vowel

Notation with cover symbols:

Ø → i̵ / #Z_ZC

N.B. This rule is facultative; it alternates with cluster reduction:

Notation with cover symbols:

Z → Ø / #_ZC

N.B. This rule must be applied before Lindeman's law.

4.3. Further rules concerning syllabification:
4.3.1. Stang's (second) law:

Notation with cover symbols:

EI → Ē / _ N

Examples:

phonological input		phonetic output		Attested I.E. languages
*/dieum/	→	[d(i)i̯ēm]	>	OInd. dⁱyām, Greek ζῆν, Lat. *diēm > diem
*/g�oum/	→	[g�ōm]	>	OInd. gām, Greek βῶν

4.3.2. Stang's law applied to laryngeals:

This rule is obviously facultative, alternating with syllabification of the nasal involved:

Examples:

phonological input		phonetic output		Attested I.E. languages
*/teh₂m/	→	[tām]	>	OInd. tām, Greek τήν, OCS tǫ
*/teh₂ns/	→	[tāns]	>	Greek τᾱ́ς < τανς << τᾱνς;
	→	[tahn̥s]	>	PIIr. tahas > OInd. tās*;
*/h₂uˈeh₁ntos/	→	[hu̯ḗntos]	→	Toch. want / yente; Goth. winds, Lat. uentus
	→	[hu̯é՚n̥tos]	→	OInd. Avest. <vā́tas> [u̯aatas]

4.3.3. Rix' law (concerning Greek):

4.3.3.1. Alternative interpretation 1: Shewa substitution:

4.3.3.2. Alternative interpretation 2: Left shewa anaptyxis:

N.B. Must be applied before Osthoff's law?
4.3.3.3. Alternative interpretation 3: Right shewa anaptyxis:

Examples:

phonological input		phonetic output		Attested I.E. languages
*h₁rsḱˈe-	→	[՚r̥sḱé-]	>	OInd. r̥cchá-ti
	→	[՚ə_ersḱé-]	>	Greek ἔρχε-ται
*h₂mb^hˈi)	→	[hm̥b^hí]	>	OInd. abhí, OHG umbe
	→	[hə_amb^hí]	>	Greek ἄμϕί
*h₃nb^hl-	→	[ՙn̥b^hl-]	>	Lat. umbilīcus, OIr. imbliu
	→	[ՙə_onb^hl̥l-]	>	Greek ὄμϕαλός
*h₃nobh-	→	[ՙə_onob^h]	>	OHG nabulo, OInd. nābha-
*h₃nebh-	→	[ՙə_oneb^h]	>	Arm. aniw

5. Rules concerning individual branches or languages

5.1. General tendencies in the development of the system of stops:

Proto-IE.	T	M	MA	Rules to be observed
Old-Indic	T	M	MA	,
Old-Iranian	T	M		,
Greek	T	M	TA
Italic	T	M	TA > F
Celtic	T	M
Germanic	F	T	M > F
Balto-Slavic	T	M
Armenian	TA	TG	M
Tocharian	T
Anatolian	T?	M?

5.1.1. Glottalistic reinterpretation:

Proto-IE.	TA	TG	MA	Rules to be observed
Old-Indic	T	M	MA	,
Old-Iranian	T	M		,
Greek	T	M	TA
Italic	T	M	TA > F
Celtic	T	M
Germanic	F	T	M > F
Balto-Slavic	T	M
Armenian	TA	TG	M
Tocharian	T
Anatolian	T?	M?

N.B.: T = Tenuis, M = Media, MA = Media Aspirata, TA = Tenuis Aspirata,
F = Fricative, TG = Tenuis Glottalis

5.1.2. Special rules for original mediae aspiratae in Latin:
5.1.2.1. Proto-Italic development:
5.1.2.1.1. Desonorization (as in Greek):

↓	*bʰ	*dʰ	ǵʰ/gʰ	*g�ʰ
	*pʰ	*tʰ	*kʰ	*k�ʰ

5.1.2.1.2. Fricativization (as in later Greek):

↓	*pʰ	*tʰ	*kʰ	*k�ʰ
	*f	*ϑ	*χ	*χ�

5.1.2.2. Proto-Latin developments:
5.1.2.2.1. Sonorization in intervocalic position:

↓	*f	*ϑ	*χ	*χ�
	*ƀ	*ð	*ǥ	*ǥ�

5.1.2.2.2. Further development of dental fricatives:

5.2. Grimm's / Verner's law
5.2.1. Rule A:

5.2.2. Rule B:

5.2.3. Rule C:

5.2.4. Rules B and C unified:

5.3. Grassmann's law (dissimilation of aspirated sounds, valid for Indo-Iranian and Greek)

N.B. This rule must be applied after the desonorization of mediae in Greek:

5.4. Brugmann's rule (valid for Indo-Iranian)

5.5. Spirantization of stops in Iranian:

5.6. The Indo-Iranian development of palatals ("palatal law"):

N.B. Must be applied before the merger of mid vowels:

Examples:

PIE PIIr. OInd. Avest.
phonological input phonetic output Early Late phonologically graphically
–k�e [–k�e] *–če *–ča –ca /-ca/ <-ca>
g�ˈenh₂ [g�énə_ah] *ǰénə *ǰánə jáni- /jani-/
g�ʰˈen-ti [g�ʰénti] *ǰʰénti *ǰʰánti hánti /janti/
kiˈeue–toi [ki̯éu̯etoi̯] *či̯éu̯etoi̯ *či̯áu̯atai̯ cyávate /ši̯au̯a-/ <š́(ii)auua–>
iungˈenti [i̯ungénti] *i̯unǰénti *i̯unǰénti yuñjánti */i̯unjanti/ *
gʰˈedeti [gʰédeti] *ǰʰédeti *ǰʰádati *hadati

5.8. The Slavic palatalizations
5.8.1. First palatalization

N.B. The rule must be applied before the monophthongization of *oi̯, *ai̯ > ě (cf. below), but after the effects of the ruki-rule (cf. ) leading from *s > x:

5.8.2. Second palatalization
5.8.2.1. East- and South-Slavic:

5.8.2.2. West-Slavic:

N.B.: The conditioning vowel must be the result of a or o plus i (diphthong, later merging with ě or ī).

5.8.3. Third palatalization:
5.8.3.1. East- and South-Slavic:

5.8.3.2. West-Slavic:

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Copyright Jost Gippert Frankfurt a/M 2001. No parts of this document may be republished in any form without prior permission by the copyright holder.

	Primary (e-) grades	Secondary (o-) grades	(a-) grades
Long grades	ē	ō	(ā)
Normal (full) grades	e	o	(a)
Zero (reduced) grade	Ø

PIE		PIIr.		OInd.	Avest.
phonological input	phonetic output	Early	Late		phonologically	graphically
–k�e	[–k�e]	*–če	*–ča	–ca	/-ca/	<-ca>
g�ˈenh₂	[g�énə_ah]	*ǰénə	*ǰánə	jáni-	/jani-/
g�ʰˈen-ti	[g�ʰénti]	*ǰʰénti	*ǰʰánti	hánti	/janti/
kiˈeue–toi	[ki̯éu̯etoi̯]	*či̯éu̯etoi̯	*či̯áu̯atai̯	cyávate	/ši̯au̯a-/	<š́(ii)auua–>
iungˈenti	[i̯ungénti]	*i̯unǰénti	*i̯unǰénti	yuñjánti	*/i̯unjanti/	*
gʰˈedeti	[gʰédeti]	*ǰʰédeti	*ǰʰádati	*hadati