Stops | Tenues | Tenues aspiratae | Mediae | Mediae aspiratae | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
(voiceless-nonaspirated) | (voiceless-aspirated) | (voiced-nonaspirated) | (voiced-aspirated) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Labials | p | ph | b | bh
Dentals
| t
| th
| d
| dh
| Palatals
| ḱ
| ḱh
| ǵ
| ǵh
| Velars
| k
| kh
| g
| gh
| Labiovelars
| kw
| kwh
| gw
| gwh
| Sibilants
| voiceless
| voiceless-aspirated
| voiced
|
| Dental
| s
| /
| /
|
| Laryngeals
| h1
| h2
| h3
|
| |
1.2. Sonorants (vowels, nasals and liquids):
Nasals and Liquids | r | l | m | n |
Vowels | front | central | back
| short
| long
| short
| long
| short
| long
| Non-high
| e
| ē
| a
| ā
| o
| ō
| High
| i
| /
|
|
| u
| /
| |
1.3. The ablaut system:
Primary (e-) grades | Secondary (o-) grades | (a-) grades | |||||||||
Long grades | ē | ō | (ā)
Normal (full) grades
| e
| o
| (a)
| Zero (reduced) grade
| Ø
| |
p | ph | b | bh | t | th | d | dh | ḱ | ḱh | ǵ | ǵh | k | kh | g | gh | kw | kwh | gw | gwh | s | h1 | h2 | h3
consonant
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| syllabic
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| nasal
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| obstruent
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| low
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| +
| +
| +
| high
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| -
| -
| -
| -
| back
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| -
| -
| -
| -
| round
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| +
| +
| +
| +
| -
| -
| -
| +
| anterior
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| +
| -
| -
| -
| coronal
| -
| -
| -
| -
| +
| +
| +
| +
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| +
| -
| -
| -
| lateral
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| continuant
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| +
| -
| +
| -
| fricative
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| +
| -
| +
| -
| aspirated
| -
| +
| -
| +
| -
| +
| -
| +
| -
| +
| -
| +
| -
| +
| -
| +
| -
| +
| -
| +
| -
| -
| +
| -
| voiced
| -
| -
| +
| +
| -
| -
| +
| +
| -
| -
| +
| +
| -
| -
| +
| +
| -
| -
| +
| +
| -
| -
| -
| +
| tense
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| |
r | l | m | n | i | u | e | ē | o | ō | a | ā
consonant
| +
| +
| +
| +
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| syllabic
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| nasal
| -
| -
| +
| +
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| obstruent
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| low
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| +
| +
| high
| -
| -
| -
| -
| +
| +
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| back
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| +
| -
| -
| +
| +
| +
| +
| round
| -
| -
| +
| -
| -
| +
| -
| -
| +
| +
| -
| -
| anterior
| +
| +
| +
| +
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| coronal
| +
| +
| -
| +
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| lateral
| -
| +
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| continuant
| +
| +
| -
| -
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| fricative
| +
| +
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| aspirated
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| voiced
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| tense
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| +
| -
| +
| -
| +
| |
p | ph | b | bh | t | th | d | dh | ḱ | ḱh | ǵ | ǵh | k | kh | g | gh | kw | kwh | gw | gwh | s | h1 | h2 | h3
C
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| Ξ
| +
| +
| -
| -
| +
| +
| -
| -
| +
| +
| -
| -
| +
| +
| -
| -
| +
| +
| -
| -
| +
| +
| +
|
| Γ
| -
| -
| +
| +
| -
| -
| +
| +
| -
| -
| +
| +
| -
| -
| +
| +
| -
| -
| +
| +
| -
| -
| -
| +
| Δ
| +
| -
| +
| -
| +
| -
| +
| -
| +
| -
| +
| -
| +
| -
| +
| -
| +
| -
| +
| -
| +
| +
| -
| -
| Φ
| -
| +
| -
| +
| -
| +
| -
| +
| -
| +
| -
| +
| -
| +
| -
| +
| -
| +
| -
| +
| -
| -
| +
| -
| P
| +
| -
| -
| -
| +
| -
| -
| -
| +
| -
| -
| -
| +
| -
| -
| -
| +
| -
| -
| -
| -
| +
| -
| -
| Ph
| -
| +
| -
| -
| -
| +
| -
| -
| -
| +
| -
| -
| -
| +
| -
| -
| -
| +
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| B
| -
| -
| +
| -
| -
| -
| +
| -
| -
| -
| +
| -
| -
| -
| +
| -
| -
| -
| +
| -
| -
| -
| -
| +
| Bh
| -
| -
| -
| +
| -
| -
| -
| +
| -
| -
| -
| +
| -
| -
| -
| +
| -
| -
| -
| +
| -
| -
| -
| -
| S
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| +
| -
| +
| -
| H
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| +
| +
| +
| Π
| +
| +
| +
| +
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| T
| -
| -
| -
| -
| +
| +
| +
| +
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| +
| -
| -
| -
| Ξ
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| -
| -
| -
| -
| Ќ
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| +
| +
| +
| +
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| X
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| +
| +
| +
| +
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| Q
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| +
| +
| +
| +
| -
| -
| -
| -
| K
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| +
| -
| -
| -
| +
| -
| -
| -
| +
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| Kh
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| +
| -
| -
| -
| +
| -
| -
| -
| +
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| G
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| +
| -
| -
| -
| +
| -
| -
| -
| +
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| Gh
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| +
| -
| -
| -
| +
| -
| -
| -
| +
| -
| -
| -
| -
| |
r | l | m | n | i | u | e | ē | o | ō | a | ā
C
| +
| +
| +
| +
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| V
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| U
| -
| -
| -
| -
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| Ω
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| E
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| +
| +
| -
| -
| -
| -
| O
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| +
| +
| -
| -
| A
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| +
| +
| V̆
| -
| -
| -
| -
| +
| +
| +
| -
| +
| -
| +
| -
| V̄
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| +
| -
| +
| -
| +
| R
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| L
| +
| +
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| N
| -
| -
| +
| +
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| I
| -
| -
| -
| -
| +
| +
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| J
| -
| -
| -
| -
| +
| -
| +
| +
| -
| -
| -
| -
| W
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| +
| -
| -
| +
| +
| -
| -
| |
Stops | Tenues | Tenues aspiratae | Mediae | Mediae aspiratae
| voiceless-nonaspirated
| voiceless-aspirated
| voiced-nonaspirated
| voiced-aspirated
| Labials
| p
| ph
| b
| bh
|
| [p, b1]
| [ph, p2]
| [b, p3]
| [bh, b2]
| Dentals
| t
| th
| d
| dh
|
| [t, d1, dh4, th5]
| [th, t2]
| [d, t3]
| [dh, d2]
|
| [ts6, dz6+1,3]
| [ts6+2]
| [dz6, ts6+3]
| [dz6+2]
|
| [þ7, ð7+1,3]
| [þ7+2]
| [ð7, þ7+3]
| [ð7+2]
| Palatals
| ḱ
| ḱh
| ǵ
| ǵh
|
| [ḱ, ǵ1, ǵh4, ḱh5]
| [ḱh, ḱ2]
| [ǵ, ḱ3]
| [ǵh, ǵ2]
| Velars
| k
| kh
| g
| gh
|
| [k, g1, gh4, kh5]
| [kh, k2]
| [g, k3]
| [gh, g2]
| Labiovelars
| kw
| kwh
| gw
| gwh
|
| [kw, gw1, gwh4, kwh5]
| [kwh, kw2]
| [gw, kw3]
| [gwh, gw2]
| Sibilants
| voiceless
| voiceless aspirated
| voiced
| voiced aspirated
| Dental
| s
| /
| /
| /
|
| [s, z1, zh4]
|
|
|
|
| [š8, ž7+1, žh7+4]
|
|
|
| Laryngeals
| h1
| h2
| h3
| /
|
| [�; �əe9, əe9�]
| [h; həa9, əa9h]
| [�; �əa9, əa9�]
|
|
| [Ø10]
|
| |
Nasals and Liquids | r | l | m | n
| [r; r̥1, r̥̄1+2]
| [l; l̥1, l̥̄1+3]
| [m; m̥1, m̥̄1+4]
| [n; n̥1, n̥̄1+5]
| |
Vowels | front | central | back | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
short | long | short | long | short | long | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Non-high | e | ē | a | ā | o | ō
| [e, a6, o7]
| [ē8]
| [a]
| [ā]
| [o]
| [ō]
|
| [ē9, ā10, ō11]
|
| [ā12]
|
| [ō12]
|
| High
| i
| /
|
|
| u
| /
|
| [i; ī12]
|
|
|
| [u; ū12]
|
|
| [i̯13]
|
|
|
| [u̯13]
|
| |
PIE | Attested I.E. languages | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
phonolog. input | phonetic output | condition / meaning | Ved. | Avest. | Greek | Arm. | Latin | OIr. | Goth. | OHG | OCS | Lith. | Hitt. | Toch.A | Toch.B | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
p | p | #_V | p | p | π | h | p | f | f | p | p | p | p | p | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
pˈotis | pótis | ‘lord, master, husband’ (nom.sg.m.) | pátiḥ | paitiš | πόσις | potis | faþs | -pod- | -pats | pats | petso
ph2tˈēr
| pəa(h)tḗr
| ‘father’
(nom.sg.m.)
| pitā́
| (p)tā
| πατήρ
| hayr
| pater
| athir
| (fadar)
| vater
|
|
|
| pācar
| pācer
| pˈōds
| pṓts
| ‘foot’ | (nom.sg.m / acc.sg.m.) pā́t
|
| πούς
|
| (pēs)
|
| (fōtus)
| fuoz
|
|
|
|
|
| pˈodm
| podm̥
|
| pā́dam
| pādəm
| πόδα
| otn
| (pedem)
|
|
|
|
|
| patan
| (pe)
| (pai)
| pˈelh1u-
| pél՚u-
| ‘much’ (masc. / | ntr. stem)
|
|
|
|
| il
| filu
| filu
|
|
|
|
|
| plh1ˈu-
| pl̥՚ú-
|
| purú-
| pouru-
| (πολύ-)
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| pˈeḱus
| péḱus
| ‘livestock’
(nom.sg.f.)
| páśuḥ
| pasuš
|
|
| (pecus)
|
| faihu
| fihu
|
| pekùs
|
|
|
| pˈontēh2s
| póntē(h)s
| ‘way, path’
(nom./gen.sg.)
| pánthāḥ
| pantå̄
| (πόντος)
| hown
| (pons)
|
|
|
| pǫtĭ
|
|
|
|
| pnth2ˈes
| pn̥thh2as
|
| patháḥ
| paϑō
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| p
| p
| _V*Kw
| p
| p
| π
|
| c
| c
| f
| f
| p
| p
| p
| p
| p
| pˈenkwe
| pénkwe
| ‘five’ (indecl.)
| páñca
| pancaπ
| πέντε
| hing
| quīnque
| cóic
| fimf
| fimf
| (pętĭ))
| (penkì)
|
| päñ
| piś
| pˈekweti
| pékweti
| ‘cooks’
(3.sg.prs.)
| pácati
| pacaiti
|
|
| coquit
|
|
|
| pečetŭ
| (kẽpa)
|
| (pakät)
| (pakṣäṃ)
| -pˈokwos
| -pókwos
| ‘-cook’ | (in comp.)
|
| -κόπος
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| p
| p
| _V*Κ
| p
| p
| Κ*π
|
| p
| u̯
| p
| p
| p
| p
| p
| p
| p
| (s)pˈeḱieti
| (s)péḱi̯eti
| ‘looks’
(3.sg.prs.)
| páśyati
| spasiieiti
| σκέπτε(ται)
|
| specit
|
|
| (spehōt)
|
|
|
|
|
| p
| p
| #_C
| p
| f
| π
|
| p
|
| f
| f
| p
| p
| p
| p
| p
| prˈo
| pró
| ‘for(-)’
(prep./prev.)
| prá
| frā
| πρό
|
| pro-
| ro-
| fra-
| fir-
| pro-
| pra-
|
|
|
| plˈeueti
| pléu̯eti
| ‘floats’
(3.sg.prs.)
| (plávate)
| (frauua-)
| πλέει
|
| (plovet)
|
|
| (flew-)
| plovetŭ
|
|
|
|
| p
| p
| V́_V
| p
| p
| π
| v,w
| p
|
| f
| f
| p
| p
| p
| p
| p
| ˈuperos
| úperos
| ‘upper’
(nom.sg.m.)
| úparaḥ
| uparō
| ὕπερος
|
| (superus)
|
| (ufaro)
|
|
|
|
|
|
| nˈepōts
| népōts
| ‘nephew’ | (nom. / acc.sg.) nápāt
| napå̄
|
|
| nepōs
| nia
|
| neuo
|
| (nepuotis)
|
|
|
| nˈepotm
| népotm̥
|
| nápātam
| napātəm
| (νέποδ-)
|
| (nepōtem)
|
|
|
|
| (nepuotį)
|
|
|
| p
| p
| V_V́
| p
| p
| π
| v,w
| p
|
| b
| b
| p
| p
| p
| p
| p
| upˈeri
| upéri
| ‘over‘ (adv.)
| upári
| upairi
| (ὑπέρ)
| ver
| (super)
| (for-)
|
| ubir
|
|
|
|
|
| h1epˈi
| ՚epí
| ‘above, on’
(adv.)
| ápi
| aipi
| ἔπί
| ew
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| p
| p
| V_TV́
| p
| p
| π
| v,w
| p
|
| b
| b
| p
| p
| p
| p
| p
| septˈm
| septḿ̥
| ‘seven’ (indecl.)
| saptá
| hapta
| ἑπτά
| ewtՙn
| septem
| (secht)
| (sibun)
| (sibun)
| sedmĭ
| (septynì)
|
| ṣpät
| ṣukt
| p
| p
| V_nV́
| p
| p
| π
| v,w
| p
| u̯
| f
| f
| p
| p
| p
| p
| p
| suˈopnos
| su̯ópnos
| ‘sleep’
(nom.sg.m.)
| svápnaḥ
| xvafnō
|
| kՙown
| somnus
| (suan)
|
|
|
| sãpnas
|
|
|
| sˈupnos
| súpnos
|
|
|
| ὕπνος
|
|
|
|
|
| sŭnŭ
|
|
| | späṃ | spane suˈepnos
| su̯épnos
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| (svefn)
| (swefn)
|
|
|
|
|
| p
| b
| V_D
| b
|
| β
|
| b
| b
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| -pdo-
| -bdo-
| ‘-foot-’ (in
comp.)
| upá-bda-
| fra-bda-
| ἔπί-βδα-
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| pˈiph3enti
| píbՙonti
| ‘drink’ (3.pl.prs.)
| píbanti
|
|
|
| bibunt
| ibat
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| h2eph3ōn
| habՙōn
| ‘watery’
(nom.sg.m.)
|
|
|
|
|
| aub
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| septmˈih2
| sebdmíh
| ‘seven’
(nom.sg.f.)
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| sedmĭ
|
|
|
|
| |
Ξ → Γ / _ Γ |
Examples:
PIE | Attested I.E. languages
phonolog.
input
| phonetic
output
| meaning /
grammar
| Ved.
| Avest.
| Greek
| Arm.
| Latin
| OIr.
| Goth.
| OHG
| OCS
| Lith.
| Hitt.
| Toch.A
| Toch.B
| ni-sd-ˈos
| nizdós
| ‘nest’
(nom.sg.m.)
| nīḍáḥ
|
|
| nist
| nīdus
| net
|
| nest
|
|
|
|
|
| h2ˈo-sd-os
| hózdos
| ‘branch’
(nom.sg.m.)
|
|
| ὄζος
|
|
|
| asts
| ast
|
|
| (ḫašduer)
|
|
| si-sd-eti
| sizdeti
| ‘sit’ (3.pl.prs.)
| sī́dati
| (ni-)šhiδaiti
| ἵζει
|
| sīdit
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| misdh-ˈom
| mizdhóm
| ‘rent, salary’
(acc.sg.mn. / | nom.sg.f.) mīḍhám
| mı̄̆ždəm
| μισϑόν
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| misdh-ˈeh2
| mizdháh
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| (mizdo)
| (miata)
| mĭzdá
|
|
|
|
| mns-dhēh1-s
| mn̥zdhē(՚)s
| ‘reasoner’
(nom.sg.m.)
| medhā́ḥ
| mazdå̄
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| -pd-o-
| -bdo-
| ‘-foot-’ (in
comp.)
| upá-bda-
| fra-bda-
| ἔπί-βδα-
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| pˈi-ph3-enti
| píbՙonti
| ‘drink’
(3.pl.prs.)
| píbanti
|
|
|
| bibunt
| ibat
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| h2ep-h3ōn
| habՙōn
| ‘watery’
(nom.sg.m.)
|
|
|
|
|
| aub
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| septm-ˈih2
| sebdmíh
| ‘seven’
(nom.sg.f.)
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| sedmĭ
|
|
|
|
| |
4.1.2. Regressive devoicing:
4.1.2.1. General rule:
Notation with cover symbols:
Γ → Ξ / _ Ξ |
4.1.2.2. Problem of relative chronology: Lachmann's law (valid for Latin):
Notation with cover symbols:
V → V̄ / _ PP
Examples:
PIE | cp. | Proto-Latin | Latin
phonological
input
| phonetic
output
| meaning/
grammar
|
| regular
development
| morphological
reanalysis
| Lachmann's
lengthening
| Old Latin
| Classic
| h3reǵ-tˈos
| ՙreḱtós
| ‘directed, right’
| (Greek ὀρεκτός, YAv. (raštəm)Goth.
(raiht-)
| *rectos
| *reg-tos
| *[re·gtos]
| *rēctos
| rēctus
| teg-tˈos
| tektós
| ‘thatched’
|
| *tektos
| *teg-tos
| *[te·gtos]
| *tēctos
| tēctus
| h2eǵ-tˈos
| haḱtós
| ‘driven’
| Greek ἀκτός, OIr. acht
| *aktos
| *ag-tos
| *[a·gtos]
| *āctos
| āctus
| h2ˈeg-tōr
| háktōr
| ‘driver’
| Greek ἄκτωρ
| *aktōr
| *ag-tōr
| *[a·gtōr]
| *āctōr
| i̯ug-tˈos
| i̯uktós
| ‘joined’
| OInd. yuktáḥ, Av. yuxta-, OEngl. iuht
| *iuktos
| *iug-tos
| *[i̯u·gtos] >
[i̯u·ngtos]
| *iūnctos
| iūnctus
| u̯id-tˈos
| u̯itstós
| ‘known’
| Greek (ἄ-)Ϝιστος, OInd. vittáḥ, OAv. vistō,
OSax. wis, OHG (gi-)wis
| *u̯ittsos
| *u̯id-tsos
| *[u̯i·dtsos]
| *u̯īssos
| uīsus
| h1ed-tˈos
| ՚etstós
| ‘eaten’
| OIr. es
| *ettsos
| *ed-tsos
| *[e·dtsos]
| *ēssos
| ēsus
| Exceptions:
| -sˈed-tis
| -sétstis
| ‘sitting’
| OInd. (ní-)ṣattiḥ, YAv. (ni-)šasti-
| *-settsis
|
|
| *-sessis
| -sessiō
| -sed-tˈos
| -setstós
| ‘sitten’
| OInd. -sattáḥ
| *-settsos
|
|
| *-sessos
| -sessus
| skhid-tós
| skhitstós
| ‘split’
| Greek σχιστός, YAv. (a-)sistō
| *skittsos
|
|
| *scissos
| scissus
| |
4.1.2.3.
Unification of rules of assimilation of non-aspirated stops:
4.1.3. Deaspiration in word final position (also before word final s):
Notation with cover symbols:
Φ → Δ / _ # | _ s # |
Examples:
PIE | Attested I.E. languages | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
phonolog. input | phonetic output | meaning/ grammar | Ved. | Avest. | Greek | Arm. | Latin | OIr / Cymr.. | Goth./OSax. | OHG | OCS | Lith. | Hitt. | Toch.A | Toch.B | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
dhrˈiGh-s | dhríks | ‘hair’ (nom.sg.f.) | ϑρίξ |
dhriGh-ˈes
| dhriGhés
| (gen.sg.f.)
|
|
| τριχός
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4.1.4. Progressive aspiration (Bartholomae's law; facultative rule in Proto-IE?):
Notation with cover symbols:
Δ → Φ / Φ _ →→ Φ → Bh / Bh _
Examples:
PIE | Attested I.E. languages
phonolog.
input
| phonetic
output
| meaning/ | grammar Ved.
| Avest.
| Greek
| Arm.
| Latin
| OIr /
Cymr..
| Goth./OSax.
| OHG
| OCS
| Lith.
| Hitt.
| Toch.A
| Toch.B
| bhudh-tˈos
| bhutstós
| ‘noticed,
become aware’
(PPP)
|
|
| (ἄ-)πυστος
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| bhudzdhós
|
| buddháḥ
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| u̯idh-tós
| u̯itstós
| ‘divided’ (PPP)
|
|
|
|
| (dī-)vīsus
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| u̯idzdhós
|
| viddháḥ
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| i̯udh-tˈos
| i̯utstós
| ‘instigated (to
fight)’ (PPP)
|
|
|
|
| iussus
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| i̯udzdhós
|
| yuddháḥ
|
|
|
|
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|
|
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|
|
| lubh-tˈeh2
| luptáh
| ‘desired,
beloved’ (PPP
nom.sg.f.)
|
|
| λυπτά
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| lubdháh
|
| lubdhā́
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| uéǵh-tōr
| u̯éḱtōr
| ‘carrier’
(nom.sg.m.)
|
|
|
|
| vectōr
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| u̯éǵdhōr
|
| voḍhā́
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| ueǵh-tˈos
| u̯eḱtós
| ‘carried,
transported’
(PPP)
|
| vašta-
|
|
| vectus
| fecht
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| u̯eǵdhós
|
|
|
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|
|
| uǵh-tˈos
| uḱtós
|
|
|
|
|
|
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|
|
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|
|
|
|
|
| uǵdhós
|
| ūḍháḥ
|
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|
|
|
| |
4.1.5. Regressive aspiration by assimilation to following h2 (facultative rule in Proto-IE?):
Notation with cover symbols:
Δ → Φ /_ h2 |
Examples:
PIE | Attested I.E. languages
phonolog.
input
| phonetic
output
| meaning/ | grammar Ved.
| Avest.
| Greek
| Arm.
| Latin
| OIr /
Cymr..
| Goth./OSax.
| OHG
| OCS
| Lith.
| Hitt.
| Toch.A
| Toch.B
| sth2-tˈos
| sthhəatós
| ‘having stood’
(PPP)
| sthitáḥ
|
|
|
| status
| -ssad
|
|
|
| stãtas
|
|
|
|
| stəa(h)tós
|
|
|
| στατός
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| sth2-tˈim
| sthhəatím
| ‘standing’
(acc.sg.f.)
| sthítiṃ
|
|
|
| statim
|
| (staþ)
| stat
|
|
|
|
|
|
| stəa(h)tím
|
|
|
| στάσιν
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| pro-sth2-os
| prosthhos
| ‘standing
forward’
(nom.sg.m.)
| prasthaḥ
|
|
|
|
| ross
|
|
| prostŭ
|
|
|
|
| mˈeǵh2
| meǵhhəa
| ‘big’
(nom.sg.n.)
| máhi
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| meǵəa(h)
|
|
|
| μέγα
| mec
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| meǵ
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| mek
|
|
| mˈeǵh2-istos
| méǵhhištos
| ‘biggest’
(nom.sg.m.)
| máhiṣṭhaḥ
| mazištō
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| méǵ(h)istos
|
|
|
| μέγιστος
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| plth2ˈus
| pl̥thhuš
| ‘broad’
(nom.sg.m.)
| pṛthúḥ
| pərəϑu-
|
|
|
| leth
|
|
|
| (platùs)
|
|
|
|
| pl̥t(h)us
|
|
|
| πλατύς
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| plth2uˈih2
| pl̥thhəau̯íh
| ‘earth’
(nom.sg.f.)
| pṛthivī́
| pərəϑβī-
|
|
|
| Cymr.
Llydaw
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| pl̥təa(h)u̯íh
|
|
|
| Πλαταια-
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| pl̥t(h)u̯íh
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| rˈot-h2-os
| róthhos
| ‘cart’
(nom.sg.m.)
| ráthaḥ
| raϑō
|
|
|
| roth
|
| rad
|
| rãtas
|
|
|
|
| rót(h)os
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| rot-eh2
| rotah
| ‘wheel’
(nom.sg.f.)
|
|
|
|
| rota
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Problematic cases (implying loss of laryngeal):
| dhugh2tˈēr
| dhughhəatḗr
| ‘daughter’
(nom.sg.f.)
| duhitā́
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| (kbatra) Lyc.
| ckācar
| tkācer
|
| dhugəa(h)tḗr
|
|
|
| ϑυγάτηρ
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| dhugdhḗr
|
|
| dugədā
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| dhuktḗr
|
|
|
|
| dowstr
|
|
| dauhtar
| tochter
| dŭštĭ
| duktė̃
|
|
|
| |
4.1.6. Assibilation of dental stops before dental stops:
Notation with cover symbols:
T → TS / _ T |
Examples:
PIE | Attested I.E. languages
phonolog.
input
| phonetic
output
| meaning/ | grammar Ved.
| Avest.
| Greek
| Arm.
| Latin
| OIr /
Cymr..
| Goth./OSax.
| OHG
| OCS
| Lith.
| Hitt.
| Toch.A
| Toch.B
| u̯r̥t-tˈos
| u̯r̥tstós
| ‘turned’ (PPP)
| vṛttáḥ
|
|
|
| vorsus
| fres-
|
|
|
| vir̃stas
|
|
|
| bhudh-tˈos
| bhutstós
| ‘noticed, become
aware’ (PPP)
|
|
| (ἄ-)πυστος
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| bhudzdhós
|
| buddháḥ
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| u̯idh-tós
| u̯itstós
|
|
|
|
|
| (dī-)vīsus
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| u̯idzdhós
|
| viddháḥ
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| i̯udh-tˈos
| i̯utstós
| ‘instigated (to
fight)’ (PPP)
|
|
|
|
| iussus
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| i̯udzdhós
|
| yuddháḥ
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| u̯id-tˈos
| u̯itstós
| ‘known’ (PPP)
| vittáḥ
| vistō
| (ἄ-)Ϝιστος
|
| uīsus
|
| wis
| (gi-)wis
|
|
|
|
|
| h1ˈēd-ti
| ՚ḗtsti
| ‘eats’ (3.sg.prs.)
| (átti)
|
| (ἔδεται
subj. > fut.)
|
| *ēst
| (ys)
|
| (ist)
| ěstŭ
| ė́sti
| ēšzi
|
|
| h1ed-dh·i
| ՚eddhí
| ‘eat!’ (2.sg.ipv.)
| addhí
|
| *ἐσϑί >
ἐσϑίω
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| h1ed-tˈos
| ՚etstós
| ‘eaten’ (PPP)
|
|
|
|
| ēsus
| es
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| -sˈed-tis
| -sétstis
| ‘sitting’
(nom.sg.f.)
| (ní-)ṣattiḥ
| (ni-)šasti-
|
|
| -sessiō
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| -sed-tˈos
| -setstós
| ‘sitten’ (PPP)
| -sattáḥ
|
|
|
| -sessus
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| uoid-th2e
| u̯oi̯tsthha
| ‘you have
known’ (2.sg.pf.)
| véttha
| vōistā
| (Ϝ)οῖσϑα
|
|
|
| waist
| uueist(u)
| (věsi)
|
|
|
|
| skhid-tós
| skhitstós
| ‘split’ (PPP)
|
| (a-)sistō
| σχιστός
|
| scissus
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Problematic cases (implying loss of laryngeals):
| dhe-dhh1-tˈoi
| dhedh՚ətói̯
| ‘puts for
himself’
(3.sg.prs.med.)
|
|
| (τίϑεται)
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| dhetstói̯
|
| dhatté
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| dhedzdhói̯
|
|
| dazdē
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| de-dh3-tˈoi
| dedՙətói̯
| ‘gives for
himself’
(3.sg.prs.med.)
|
|
| (διδοται)
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| detstói̯
|
| datté
| dastē
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| |
4.1.7. Dissimilation of dental stops before velar stops ("thorn" rule):
Notation with cover symbols:
T → Þ / _ Ξ |
Examples:
PIE | Attested I.E. languages
phonolog.
input
| phonetic
output
| meaning/ | grammar Ved.
| Avest.
| Greek
| Arm.
| Latin
| OIr /
Cymr..
| Goth./OSax.
| OHG
| OCS
| Lith.
| Hitt.
| Toch.A
| Toch.B
| h2ˈrtḱos
| hə́artćḱós
| ‘bear’
|
|
|
|
| ursus
| art
|
|
|
|
| ḫartka-
|
|
|
| hə́arḱćós
|
| ṛ́kṣaḥ
| aršō
| ἄρκτος
| arǰ
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| tḱˈitis
| tćḱítis
| ‘settlement’
(nom.sg.f.)
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| ḱćítiš
|
| kṣitíḥ
| šiti-
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| ḱćítiš
|
|
|
| κτίσις
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| dhǵhuH-m
| d�ǵhúhm
| ‘fish’
(acc.sg.m.)
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| d�ǵhúhm̥
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| ǵ�húhm
|
|
|
| ἰχϕὺν
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| ǵ�húhm̥
|
|
|
|
| jukn
|
|
|
|
|
| žùvį́
|
|
|
| dhǵhˈom-i-os
| d�ǵhómii̯os
| ‘earthly’
(nom.sg.m.)
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| ǵ�hómii̯os
|
| kṣámiyaḥ
|
| χϑόνιος
|
|
| duine
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| dhǵhem-iˈeh2
| d�ǵhemi̯áh
| ‘land’
(nom.sg.f.)
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| ǵ�hemi̯ah
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| zemljá
| žẽmė
|
|
|
| dhǵhm-ˈes
| d�ǵhmés
| ‘earth’
(gen.sg.f.)
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| dagnaš
|
|
|
| ǵ�hmés
|
| kṣmáḥ
| zəmō
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| �hmés
|
| jmáḥ
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| dhǵhm-ˈei
| d�ǵhmei̯
| ‘earth’
(dat.sg.f.)
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| ǵ�hmei̯
|
| (kṣmé)
| zəmē
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| �hmei̯
|
| jmé
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| �hm̥mei̯
|
|
|
| (χαμαί)
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| dhˈeǵhōm
| dhéǵhōm
| ‘earth’
(nom.sg.f.)
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| dēgan
|
|
| > dhǵhˈōm
| d�ǵhṓm
|
|
| (zå̄)
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| ǵ�hṓm
|
| (kṣāḥ)
|
| χϑών
|
|
| duine
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| dh’eǵhom-m
| dhéǵhomm̥
| ‘earth’
(acc.sg.f.)
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| dhéǵhōm
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| > dhǵhˈom-m
| d�ǵhomm̥
| ‘earth’
(acc.sg.f.)
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| tkaṃ
| keṃ
|
| ǵ�homm̥
|
|
|
| χϑόνα
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| d�ǵhōm
|
|
| ząm
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| ǵ�hōm
|
| kṣā́m
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| ˈn-dhgwhi-tom
| ń̥d�gwhitóm
| ‘imperishable’
(neg. PPP,
nom.sg.n.)
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| ń̥gw�hitóm
|
| ákṣitam
|
| ἄϕϑιτον
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| dhgwhˈi-tis
| d�gwhítis
| ‘peril’
(nom.sg.f.)
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| gw�hítis
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| gw�hítiš
|
| kṣitíḥ
|
| ϕϑίσις
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| dhgwhineHti
| d�gwhinEHti
| ‘destroys’
(3.sg.prs.)
|
| jināiti
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| gw�hinEHti
|
| kṣiṇāti
|
| (ϕϑίνει)
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| |
4.1.8. "Ruki" rule:
4.1.8.1. a) after i,u:
Notation with cover symbols:
s → š / I _ |
4.1.8.2. b) after velars:
Notation with cover symbols:
s → š / Ξ _ |
Unification of rules a) and b):
Notation with cover symbols:
s → š / I | Ξ _ |
4.1.8.3. b) after r:
Notation with cover symbols:
s → š / r _ |
4.2. Rules of syllabification
4.2.1. Hierarchy:
Rank | Sound category | Conditions of syllabicity
I.
| Non-high vowels
| Always (wherever they appear)
| II.
| High vowels, nasals, liquids
| When not adjacent to sound of category I and
when not followed by syllabic sound of
category II ("Schindler's rule");
|
|
| when, as second element of syllable, followed
by sound of category I in word-final syllable
("Sievers'" and "Lindeman's" laws)
| III.
| Laryngeals
| When not adjacent to sound of category I or
syllabic sound of category II
| IV.
| "Shewa secundum"
| Within remaining clusters of non-syllabic
consonants (facultatively)
| |
4.2.2. Schematic rule representation:
4.2.2.1. Non-high vowels ("syllabic" not regarded as an underlying feature)
4.2.2.2. Other sonorants ("sonorant" not regarded as an underlying feature): Schindler's rule ( Die Sprache 23
[1977], p. 56):
Notation with cover symbols ("colouring" not accountable for):
R → R̥ / (# | C) _ (C | #) |
(rule operating iteratively from right to left, with high vowels, nasals and liquids regarded as being underlyingly
non-syllabic)
4.2.2.2.1. Subrule I: Sievers' law (after Schindler, o.c., p. 57):
Alternative notation with cover symbols:
R → R̥ / WCn1 _ VCn0# | VRCn1 _ VCn0# |
Same with notation of presumptive syllable boundaries (.):
R → R̥ / W.Cn1 _ VCn0# | VR.Cn1 _ VCn0# |
N.B. Tautosyllabic obstruent clusters are no valid condition:
R → R / VPP. _ VCn0# |
4.2.2.2.2. Lindeman's law:
Notation by cover symbols:
R → R̥ / #Cn1 _ VCn0# |
Example:
Paradigm *{ḱuon-} "dog" | ||||||
Case form | phonological input | phonetic output | Old Indic | Greek | ||
attested | expected | |||||
Nom.Sg. | /ḱuō(n)/ | → | [ḱu̯ō(n)] / [ḱuu̯ō(n)] | śuvā | κύων / †πῶν | |
Acc.Sg. | /ḱuón-m/ | → | [ḱu̯ónm̥] | śvā́nam | <κύνα> | †πόνα |
Gen.Sg. | /ḱun-és/ | → | [ḱunés] | śunás | (κυνός) | †κυνές |
Nom.Pl. | /ḱuón-es/ | → | [ḱu̯ónes] | śvā́nas | <κύνες> | †πόνες |
Acc.Pl. | /ḱun-ns/ | → | [ḱunn̥s] | śunás | κύνας | |
Instr.Pl. | /ḱun-bʰís/ | → | [ḱu̯n̥bʰís] | śvabhís | ||
Loc.Pl. | /ḱun-sú/ | → | [ḱu̯n̥sú] | *śvasú | <(κῡσί)> | †πασύ |
4.2.2.3. Laryngeals (N.B.: syllabicity of obstruents phonetically implausible)
H → H̥ / (C | #) H _ (C | #) |
4.2.2.3.1. Alternative solutions:
4.2.2.3.1.1. Shewa anaptyxis before laryngeals:
Ø → ə / (C | #) _ H (C | #) |
4.2.2.3.1.2. Shewa anaptyxis after laryngeals:
Ø → ə / (C | #) H _ (C | #) |
4.2.2.3.1.3. Shewa substitution (N.B.: "double" effects not accountable for):
H → ∀ / (C | #) _ (C | #) |
4.2.3. Other rules concerning laryngeals:
4.2.3.1. "Colouring":
Notation with cover symbols:
e → a / ( _ h2 ) | ( h2 _ ) |
e → o / ( _ h3 ) | ( h3 _ ) |
4.2.3.2. Loss of laryngeal in pausa position ("Kuiper's law", facultative; after colouring!):
Notation with cover symbols:
H → Ø / _ ## |
4.2.3.3. "Compensatory lengthening":
4.2.3.3.1. a) coinciding with colouring:
e → ē / _ h1C |
e → ā / _ h2C |
e → o / _ h3C |
4.2.3.3.2. b) same, with laryngeals "absorbed":
eh1 → ē / _ C |
eh2 → ā / _ C |
eh3 → o / _ C |
N.B. This cannot be the general rule of PIE because *h2 has been preserved as ḫ in this position in Anatolian; cp.,
e.g. Hitt. paḫš- < *peh2-sḱ- vs. Lat. pāscō etc.
4.2.3.3.3. c) rule to be applied after colouring, including lengthening of i,u,r̥,l̥,m̥,n̥:
V → V̄ / _ HC |
N.B. In the case of nasals and liquids, this rule can hardly represent the actual phonetic development if we
consider the Greek development of -ενε- vs -νη- etc. (governed by accent? ablaut levelling?); rather a rule of
shewa anaptyxis? Cp.
PIE | Greek | Latin | Slavic | Indo-Iranian | Toch.B | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
phonological input | phonetic output | Proto-Greek | Classic | OInd. | Avest. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
/ǵˈn̥h1-ti-s/ ← {ǵˈenh1-ti-s}? | [ǵə́en՚əetis] | *génetis | γένεσις |
| [ǵnəe՚tis]
|
|
| nāti-ō
|
|
|
|
| /ǵn̥h1-tˈo-s/
| [ǵnəe՚tós]
| *gnātós
| (κασί-)γνητος
| nātus
|
|
|
|
|
| [ǵəen՚tós]
|
|
|
|
| jātáḥ
| jātō
|
| /ḱˈr̥h2sˈn-h2/ | ← {ḱˈerh2sn-h2}? [ḱəar̥̄hsn̥̄́h]
|
|
|
|
| śīrṣā́
|
|
|
| [ḱə́arhəasnəah]
| *kárahna
| κάρηνα
|
|
|
|
|
| /ḱr̥h2sn̥-ˈes/
| [ḱəarhsnés]
|
|
|
|
| śīrṣṇás
|
|
| /ḱˈr̥h2sn̥-tos/
| [ḱrə́ahsn̥tos]
| *krā́hatos
| κρᾱ́ατος
|
|
|
|
|
| /ḱˈr̥h2os/
| [ḱə́arhos]
|
|
|
|
| śíraḥ
| sarə̄
|
| /-str̥h3-toi/
| [-stəorՙə3toi]
| *-storotoi̯
| ἐ-στόροται
|
|
|
|
|
| /str̥h3-tˈo-s/
| [strəoՙtós]
| *strōtós
| στρωτός
| strātus
|
|
|
|
|
| [stəorՙtós]
|
|
|
|
| (stīrṇáḥ)
| starətas-
|
| /pˈrh3uos/
| [pə3rՙu̯os]
|
|
|
| pĭ́rvŭ-jŭ
| pū́rvaḥ
| pouruuō
| pärwe-ṣṣe
| /pˈrh3tos/
| [prə́3ՙtos]
| *prṓtos
| πρῶτος
|
|
|
|
|
| |
4.2.3.3.4. d) same in word final position: three (facultative) effects:
4.2.3.3.4.1. lengthening:
V → V̄ / _ HC |
4.2.3.3.4.2. loss of laryngeal ("Kuiper's law"):
Notation with cover symbols:
H → Ø / V _ #
4.2.3.3.4.3. after i,u: shewa anaptyxis before laryngeal:
Notation with cover symbols ("colouring" not accountable for):
Ø → ə / R _ H # |
Examples:
phonological input | phonetic output | Attested I.E. languages | ||
*/pˈih1uerih2/ | → | [pī́u̯erī] | > | OInd. pī́varī |
→ | [pī́u̯eri] | > | OInd. voc. *pī́vari | |
→ | [pī́u̯eri̯əah] | > | Greek πίειρα | |
/pˈotnih2/ | → | [pótnī] | > | OInd. pátnī |
→ | [pótni] | > | OInd. voc. pátni | |
→ | [pótnii̯əah] | > | Greek πότνια | |
/plth2uˈih2/ | → | [pl̥thhəau̯ī́] | > | OInd. pr̥th(i)vī́ |
→ | [pĺ̥thhəau̯i] | > | OInd. voc. pŕ̥th(i)vi | |
→ | [pl̥təahu̯i̯əah] | > | Greek *πλαταῖα | |
/h3kwih1 | → | [ՙəokwī] | > | (Arm. ačՙ-kՙ, Slav. očī, Lith. akì) |
→ | [ՙəokwi] | |||
[ՙəokwi̯əe՚] | > | Greek ὄσσε |
4.2.3.4. Occlusives ("shewa secundum"). Cf. Peters, Laryngale, 98. N.B.: This "shewa" to be regarded as
unrounded high vowel
Notation with cover symbols:
Ø → i̵ / #Z_ZC |
N.B. This rule is facultative; it alternates with cluster reduction:
Notation with cover symbols:
Z → Ø / #_ZC |
N.B. This rule must be applied before Lindeman's law.
4.3. Further rules concerning syllabification:
4.3.1. Stang's (second) law:
Notation with cover symbols:
EI → Ē / _ N |
Examples:
phonological input | phonetic output | Attested I.E. languages | ||
*/dieum/ | → | [d(i)i̯ēm] | > | OInd. diyām, Greek ζῆν, Lat. *diēm > diem |
*/g�oum/ | → | [g�ōm] | > | OInd. gām, Greek βῶν |
4.3.2. Stang's law applied to laryngeals:
This rule is obviously facultative, alternating with syllabification of the nasal involved:
Examples:
phonological input | phonetic output | Attested I.E. languages | ||
*/teh2m/ | → | [tām] | > | OInd. tām, Greek τήν, OCS tǫ |
*/teh2ns/ | → | [tāns] | > | Greek τᾱ́ς < τανς << τᾱνς; |
→ | [tahn̥s] | > | PIIr. *tahas > OInd. tās; | |
*/h2uˈeh1ntos/ | → | [hu̯ḗntos] | → | Toch. want / yente; Goth. winds, Lat. uentus |
→ | [hu̯é՚n̥tos] | → | OInd. Avest. <vā́tas> [u̯aatas] |
4.3.3. Rix' law (concerning Greek):
4.3.3.1. Alternative interpretation 1: Shewa substitution:
4.3.3.2. Alternative interpretation 2: Left shewa anaptyxis:
N.B. Must be applied before Osthoff's law?
4.3.3.3. Alternative interpretation 3: Right shewa anaptyxis:
phonological input | phonetic output | Attested I.E. languages | ||
*h1rsḱˈe- | → | [՚r̥sḱé-] | > | OInd. r̥cchá-ti |
→ | [՚əersḱé-] | > | Greek ἔρχε-ται | |
*h2mbhˈi) | → | [hm̥bhí] | > | OInd. abhí, OHG umbe |
→ | [həambhí] | > | Greek ἄμϕί | |
*h3nbhl- | → | [ՙn̥bhl-] | > | Lat. umbilīcus, OIr. imbliu |
→ | [ՙəonbhl̥l-] | > | Greek ὄμϕαλός | |
*h3nobh- | → | [ՙəonobh] | > | OHG nabulo, OInd. nābha- |
*h3nebh- | → | [ՙəonebh] | > | Arm. aniw |
Proto-IE. | T | M | MA | Rules to be observed |
Old-Indic | T | M | MA | , |
Old-Iranian | T | M | , | |
Greek | T | M | TA | |
Italic | T | M | TA > F | |
Celtic | T | M | ||
Germanic | F | T | M > F | |
Balto-Slavic | T | M | ||
Armenian | TA | TG | M | |
Tocharian | T | |||
Anatolian | T? | M? |
5.1.1. Glottalistic reinterpretation:
Proto-IE. | TA | TG | MA | Rules to be observed |
Old-Indic | T | M | MA | , |
Old-Iranian | T | M | , | |
Greek | T | M | TA | |
Italic | T | M | TA > F | |
Celtic | T | M | ||
Germanic | F | T | M > F | |
Balto-Slavic | T | M | ||
Armenian | TA | TG | M | |
Tocharian | T | |||
Anatolian | T? | M? |
N.B.:T = Tenuis, M = Media, MA = Media Aspirata, TA = Tenuis Aspirata,
F = Fricative, TG = Tenuis Glottalis
↓ | *bʰ | *dʰ | *ǵʰ/*gʰ | *g�ʰ
| *pʰ
| *tʰ
| *kʰ
| *k�ʰ
| |
5.1.2.1.2. Fricativization (as in later Greek):
↓ | *pʰ | *tʰ | *kʰ | *k�ʰ
| *f
| *ϑ
| *χ
| *χ�
| |
5.1.2.2. Proto-Latin developments:
5.1.2.2.1. Sonorization in intervocalic position:
↓ | *f | *ϑ | *χ | *χ�
| *ƀ
| *ð
| *ǥ
| *ǥ�
| |
5.1.2.2.2. Further development of dental fricatives:
5.2. Grimm's / Verner's law
5.2.1. Rule A:
5.2.2. Rule B:
5.2.3. Rule C:
5.2.4. Rules B and C unified:
5.3. Grassmann's law (dissimilation of aspirated sounds, valid for Indo-Iranian and Greek)
N.B. This rule must be applied after the desonorization of mediae in Greek:
5.4. Brugmann's rule (valid for Indo-Iranian)
5.5. Spirantization of stops in Iranian:
5.6. The Indo-Iranian development of palatals ("palatal law"):
N.B. Must be applied before the merger of mid vowels:
Examples:
PIE
PIIr.
OInd.
Avest.
phonological
input
phonetic
output
Early
Late
phonologically
graphically
–k�e
[–k�e]
*–če
*–ča
–ca
/-ca/
<-ca>
g�ˈenh2
[g�énəah]
*ǰénə
*ǰánə
jáni-
/jani-/
g�ʰˈen-ti
[g�ʰénti]
*ǰʰénti
*ǰʰánti
hánti
/janti/
kiˈeue–toi
[ki̯éu̯etoi̯]
*či̯éu̯etoi̯
*či̯áu̯atai̯
cyávate
/ši̯au̯a-/
<š́(ii)auua–>
iungˈenti
[i̯ungénti]
*i̯unǰénti
*i̯unǰénti
yuñjánti
*/i̯unjanti/
*
gʰˈedeti
[gʰédeti]
*ǰʰédeti
*ǰʰádati
*hadati
5.7. The Slavic palatalizations
5.7.1. First palatalization
N.B. The rule must be applied before the monophthongization of *oi̯, *ai̯ > ě (cf. below), but after the
effects of the ruki-rule (cf. ) leading from *s > x:
5.7.2. Second palatalization
5.7.2.1. East- and South-Slavic:
5.7.2.2. West-Slavic:
N.B.: The conditioning vowel must be the result of a or o plus i (diphthong, later merging with ě or ī).
5.7.3. Third palatalization:
5.7.3.1. East- and South-Slavic:
5.7.3.2. West-Slavic:
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